chronic

Chronic subdural hematoma treatment

Chronic subdural hematoma treatment

Corticosteroids are associated with reduced recurrence but also increased morbidity. Drains reduce the risk of recurrence, but the position of drain (subdural vs subgaleal) did not influence recurrence. Middle meningeal artery embolization is a promising treatment warranting further evaluation in randomized trials 1).

Surgical therapies involve the irrigation and removal of the blood products, sometimes with partial resection of these vascular membranes 2).

Investigational medical therapies have employed various strategies, which include reducing the rate of microhemorrhage from the membranes, changing the osmotic environment, or altering angiogenesis 3).

Endovascular therapies are aimed at de-vascularizing these membranes 4) 5) 6) 7).

Providing a high level of evidence to propose a standard of care for this frequent pathology is of utmost importance. However, two surveys in the UK and in France have shown a wide range of practice, without major rationale 8) 9).

A variety of clinical factors must be taken into account in the treatment of chronic subdural hematoma (cSDH), and the multifaceted treatment paradigms continue to evolve 10).

There is lack of uniformity about the treatment strategies, such as the role of burr hole, twist drill, craniotomy, etc., in CSDH amongst various surgeons. There is also disagreement about the use of drain, irrigation, and steroid 11) 12).

Surgery is usually the treatment of choice, but conservative treatment may be a good alternative in some situations.

Chronic subdural hematoma surgery

see Chronic subdural hematoma surgery.

Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization

see Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma.

Systematic reviews

Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence after evacuation occurs in approximately 10% of chronic subdural hematomas, and the various Chronic subdural hematoma surgery interventions are approximately equivalent. Corticosteroids are associated with reduced recurrence but also increased morbidity. Drains reduce the risk of recurrence, but the position of drain (subdural vs subgaleal) did not influence recurrence. Middle meningeal artery embolization is a promising treatment warranting further evaluation in randomized trials 13).

Soleman et al., provide a systematic review of studies analysing the conservative treatment options and the natural history of cSDH. Of 231 articles screened, 35 were included in this systematic review. Studies evaluating the natural history and conservative treatment modalities of cSDH remain sparse and are predominantly of low level of evidence. The natural history of cSDH remains unclear and is analysed only in case reports or very small case series. “Wait and watch” or “wait and scan” management is indicated in patients with no or minor symptoms (Markwalder score 0-1). However, it seems that there are no clear clinical or radiological signs indicating whether the cSDH will resolve spontaneously or not (type C recommendation). In symptomatic patients who are not worsening or in a comatose state, oral steroid treatment might be an alternative to surgery (type C recommendation). Tranexamic acid proved effective in a small patient series (type C recommendation), but its risk of increasing thromboembolic events in patients treated with antithrombotic or anticoagulant medication is unclear. Angiotensin converting-enzyme inhibitors were evaluated only as adjuvant therapy to surgery, and their effect on the rate of recurrence remains debatable. Mannitol showed promising results in small retrospective series and might be a valid treatment modality (type C recommendation). However, the long treatment duration is a major drawback. Patients presenting without paresis can be treated with a platelet activating factor receptor antagonist (type C recommendation), since they seem to promote resolution of the haematoma, especially in patients with subdural hygromas or low-density haematomas on computed tomography. Lastly, atorvastatin seems to be a safe option for the conservative treatment of asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic cSDH patients (type C recommendation). In conclusion, the knowledge of the conservative treatment modalities for cSDH is sparse and based on small case series and low grade evidence. However, some treatment modalities seem promising even in symptomatic patients with large haematomas. Randomised controlled trials are currently underway, and will hopefully provide us with good evidence for or against the conservative treatment of cSDH 14).

Surveys

The aim of a study was to survey aspects of current practice in the UK and Ireland. A 1-page postal questionnaire addressing the treatment of primary (i.e. not recurrent) CSDH was sent to consultant SBNS members in March 2006. There were 112 responses from 215 questionnaires (52%). The preferred surgical technique was burr hole drainage (92%). Most surgeons prefer not to place a drain, with 27% never using one and 58% using drain only in one-quarter of cases or less. Only 11% of surgeons always place a drain, and only 30% place one in 75% of cases or more. The closed subdural-to-external drainage was most commonly used (91%) with closed subgaleal-to-external and subdural-to-peritoneal conduit used less often (3 and 4%, respectively). Only 5% of responders claimed to know the exact recurrence rate. The average perceived recurrence rate among the surgeons that never use drains and those who always use drains, was the same (both 11%). Most operations are performed by registrars (77%). Postoperative imaging is requested routinely by 32% of respondents and 57% of surgeons prescribe bed rest. Ninety four per cent surgeons employ conservative management in less than one-quarter of cases. Forty-two per cent of surgeons never prescribe steroids, 55% prescribe them to those managed conservatively. This survey demonstrates that there are diverse practices in the management of CSDH. This may be because of sufficiently persuasive evidence either does not exist or is not always taken into account. The current literature provides Class II and III evidence and there is a need for randomized studies to address the role of external drainage, steroids and postoperative bed rest 15).

Cenic et al. developed and administered a questionnaire to Canadian Neurosurgeons with questions relating to the management of chronic and subacute subdural hematoma. Our sampling frame included all neurosurgery members of the Canadian Neurosurgical Society.

Of 158 questionnaires, 120 were returned (response rate = 76%). The respondents were neurosurgeons with primarily adult clinical practices (108/120). Surgeons preferred one and two burr-hole craniostomy to craniotomy or twist-drill craniostomy as the procedure of choice for initial treatment of subdural hematoma (35.5% vs 49.5% vs 4.7% vs 9.3%, respectively). Craniotomy and two burr-holes were preferred for recurrent subdural hematomas (43.3% and 35.1%, respectively). Surgeons preferred irrigation of the subdural cavity (79.6%), use of a subdural drain (80.6%), and no use of anti-convulsants or corticosteroids (82.1% and 86.6%, respectively). We identified a lack of consensus with keeping patients supine following surgery and post-operative antibiotic use.

The survey has identified variations in practice patterns among Canadian Neurosurgeons with respect to treatment of subacute or chronic subdural hematoma (SDH). Our findings support the need for further prospective studies and clinical trials to resolve areas of discrepancies in clinical management and hence, standardize treatment regimens 16).

Steroids

Steroids for chronic subdural hematoma.

Goreisan

see Goreisan for chronic subdural hematoma

Chronic subdural hematoma seizure prophylaxis

see Chronic subdural hematoma seizure prophylaxis.

Anticoagulation resumption after chronic subdural hematoma

Anticoagulation resumption after chronic subdural hematoma.

References

1) , 13)

Henry J, Amoo M, Kissner M, Deane T, Zilani G, Crockett MT, Javadpour M. Management of Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Systematic Review and Component Network Meta-analysis of 455 Studies With 103 645 Cases. Neurosurgery. 2022 Dec 1;91(6):842-855. doi: 10.1227/neu.0000000000002144. Epub 2022 Sep 28. PMID: 36170165.
2)

Markwalder TM . The course of chronic subdural hematomas after burr-hole craniostomy with and without closed-system drainage. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2000;11:541–6.doi:10.1016/S1042-3680(18)30120-7
3)

Sun TF , Boet R , Poon WS . Non-surgical primary treatment of chronic subdural haematoma: preliminary results of using dexamethasone. Br J Neurosurg 2005;19:327–33.doi:10.1080/02688690500305332
4)

Link TW , Boddu S , Marcus J , et al . Middle meningeal artery embolization as treatment for chronic subdural hematoma: a case series. Oper Neurosurg 2018;14:556–62.doi:10.1093/ons/opx154
5)

Link TW , Boddu S , Paine SM , et al . Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma: a series of 60 cases. Neurosurgery 2018;121.doi:10.1093/neuros/nyy521
6)

Link TW , Rapoport BI , Paine SM , et al . Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma: Endovascular technique and radiographic findings. Interv Neuroradiol 2018;24:455–62.doi:10.1177/1591019918769336
7)

Link TW , Schwarz JT , Paine SM , et al . Middle meningeal artery embolization for Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence: a case series. World Neurosurg 2018;118:e570–4.doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2018.06.241
8)

M. Guénot, Hématome sous-dural chronique. Introduction et résultats de l’enquête de la SFNC, Neurochirurgie 4 (2001) 459–460 https://doi.org/ NCHIR-11-2001-47- 5-0028-3770-101019-ART7.
9)

] T. Santarius, R. Lawton, P.J. Kirkpatrick, P.J. Hutchinson, The management of primary chronic subdural haematoma: a questionnaire survey of practice in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, Br. J. Neurosurg. 22 (2008) 529–534, https://doi.org/10.1080/02688690802195381.
10)

Sahyouni R, Goshtasbi K, Mahmoodi A, Tran DK, Chen JW. Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Historical and Clinical Perspective. World Neurosurg. 2017 Dec;108:948-953. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.09.064. Epub 2017 Sep 19. Review. PubMed PMID: 28935548.
11) , 15)

Santarius T, Lawton R, Kirkpatrick PJ, Hutchinson PJ. The management of primary chronic subdural haematoma: a questionnaire survey of practice in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Br J Neurosurg. 2008 Aug;22(4):529-34. doi: 10.1080/02688690802195381. PubMed PMID: 18686063.
12)

Cenic A, Bhandari M, Reddy K. Management of chronic subdural hematoma: a national survey and literature review. Can J Neurol Sci. 2005 Nov;32(4):501-6. PubMed PMID: 16408582.
14)

Soleman J, Noccera F, Mariani L. The conservative and pharmacological management of chronic subdural haematoma. Swiss Med Wkly. 2017 Jan 19;147:w14398. doi: smw.2017.14398. PubMed PMID: 28102879.
16)

Cenic A, Bhandari M, Reddy K. Management of chronic subdural hematoma: a national survey and literature review. Can J Neurol Sci. 2005 Nov;32(4):501-6. PubMed PMID: 16408582.

t

A variety of clinical factors must be taken into account in the treatment of chronic subdural hematoma (cSDH), and the multifaceted treatment paradigms continue to evolve 1).

There is lack of uniformity about the treatment strategies, such as the role of burr hole, twist drill, craniotomy, etc., in CSDH amongst various surgeons. There is also disagreement about the use of drain, irrigation, and steroid 2) 3).

Surgery is usually the treatment of choice, but conservative treatment may be a good alternative in some situations.

see DECSA trial.

see Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization.

Chronic subdural hematoma surgery

see Chronic subdural hematoma surgery.

Systematic reviews

Soleman et al., provide a systematic review of studies analysing the conservative treatment options and the natural history of cSDH. Of 231 articles screened, 35 were included in this systematic review. Studies evaluating the natural history and conservative treatment modalities of cSDH remain sparse and are predominantly of low level of evidence. The natural history of cSDH remains unclear and is analysed only in case reports or very small case series. “Wait and watch” or “wait and scan” management is indicated in patients with no or minor symptoms (Markwalder score 0-1). However, it seems that there are no clear clinical or radiological signs indicating whether the cSDH will resolve spontaneously or not (type C recommendation). In symptomatic patients who are not worsening or in a comatose state, oral steroid treatment might be an alternative to surgery (type C recommendation). Tranexamic acid proved effective in a small patient series (type C recommendation), but its risk of increasing thromboembolic events in patients treated with antithrombotic or anticoagulant medication is unclear. Angiotensin converting-enzyme inhibitors were evaluated only as adjuvant therapy to surgery, and their effect on the rate of recurrence remains debatable. Mannitol showed promising results in small retrospective series and might be a valid treatment modality (type C recommendation). However, the long treatment duration is a major drawback. Patients presenting without paresis can be treated with a platelet activating factor receptor antagonist (type C recommendation), since they seem to promote resolution of the haematoma, especially in patients with subdural hygromas or low-density haematomas on computed tomography. Lastly, atorvastatin seems to be a safe option for the conservative treatment of asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic cSDH patients (type C recommendation). In conclusion, the knowledge of the conservative treatment modalities for cSDH is sparse and based on small case series and low grade evidence. However, some treatment modalities seem promising even in symptomatic patients with large haematomas. Randomised controlled trials are currently underway, and will hopefully provide us with good evidence for or against the conservative treatment of cSDH 4).

Surveys

The aim of a study was to survey aspects of current practice in the UK and Ireland. A 1-page postal questionnaire addressing the treatment of primary (i.e. not recurrent) CSDH was sent to consultant SBNS members in March 2006. There were 112 responses from 215 questionnaires (52%). The preferred surgical technique was burr hole drainage (92%). Most surgeons prefer not to place a drain, with 27% never using one and 58% using drain only in one-quarter of cases or less. Only 11% of surgeons always place a drain, and only 30% place one in 75% of cases or more. The closed subdural-to-external drainage was most commonly used (91%) with closed subgaleal-to-external and subdural-to-peritoneal conduit used less often (3 and 4%, respectively). Only 5% of responders claimed to know the exact recurrence rate. The average perceived recurrence rate among the surgeons that never use drains and those who always use drains, was the same (both 11%). Most operations are performed by registrars (77%). Postoperative imaging is requested routinely by 32% of respondents and 57% of surgeons prescribe bed rest. Ninety four per cent surgeons employ conservative management in less than one-quarter of cases. Forty-two per cent of surgeons never prescribe steroids, 55% prescribe them to those managed conservatively. This survey demonstrates that there are diverse practices in the management of CSDH. This may be because of sufficiently persuasive evidence either does not exist or is not always taken into account. The current literature provides Class II and III evidence and there is a need for randomized studies to address the role of external drainage, steroids and postoperative bed rest 5).

Cenic et al. developed and administered a questionnaire to Canadian Neurosurgeons with questions relating to the management of chronic and subacute subdural hematoma. Our sampling frame included all neurosurgery members of the Canadian Neurosurgical Society.

Of 158 questionnaires, 120 were returned (response rate = 76%). The respondents were neurosurgeons with primarily adult clinical practices (108/120). Surgeons preferred one and two burr-hole craniostomy to craniotomy or twist-drill craniostomy as the procedure of choice for initial treatment of subdural hematoma (35.5% vs 49.5% vs 4.7% vs 9.3%, respectively). Craniotomy and two burr-holes were preferred for recurrent subdural hematomas (43.3% and 35.1%, respectively). Surgeons preferred irrigation of the subdural cavity (79.6%), use of a subdural drain (80.6%), and no use of anti-convulsants or corticosteroids (82.1% and 86.6%, respectively). We identified a lack of consensus with keeping patients supine following surgery and post-operative antibiotic use.

The survey has identified variations in practice patterns among Canadian Neurosurgeons with respect to treatment of subacute or chronic subdural hematoma (SDH). Our findings support the need for further prospective studies and clinical trials to resolve areas of discrepancies in clinical management and hence, standardize treatment regimens 6).

Glucocorticoids

Since glucocorticoids have been used for treatment of cSDH in 1962 their role is still discussed controversially in lack of evident data. On the basis of the ascertained inflammation cycle in cSDH dexamethasone will be an ideal substance for a short lasting, concomitant treatment protocol.

A study is designed as a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial 820 patients who are operated for cSDH and from the age of 25 years are included after obtaining informed consent. They are randomized for administration of dexamethasone (16-16-12-12-8-4 mg/d) or placebo (maltodextrin) during the first 48 hours after surgery. The type I error is 5% and the type II error is 20%. The primary endpoint is the reoperation within 12 weeks postoperative.

This study tests whether dexamethasone administered over 6 days is a safe and potent agent in relapse prevention for evacuated cSDH 7).

Chronic subdural hematoma seizure prophylaxis

see Chronic subdural hematoma seizure prophylaxis.

Anticoagulation resumption after chronic subdural hematoma

Anticoagulation resumption after chronic subdural hematoma.

References

1)

Sahyouni R, Goshtasbi K, Mahmoodi A, Tran DK, Chen JW. Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Historical and Clinical Perspective. World Neurosurg. 2017 Dec;108:948-953. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.09.064. Epub 2017 Sep 19. Review. PubMed PMID: 28935548.
2) , 5)

Santarius T, Lawton R, Kirkpatrick PJ, Hutchinson PJ. The management of primary chronic subdural haematoma: a questionnaire survey of practice in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Br J Neurosurg. 2008 Aug;22(4):529-34. doi: 10.1080/02688690802195381. PubMed PMID: 18686063.
3)

Cenic A, Bhandari M, Reddy K. Management of chronic subdural hematoma: a national survey and literature review. Can J Neurol Sci. 2005 Nov;32(4):501-6. PubMed PMID: 16408582.
4)

Soleman J, Noccera F, Mariani L. The conservative and pharmacological management of chronic subdural haematoma. Swiss Med Wkly. 2017 Jan 19;147:w14398. doi: smw.2017.14398. PubMed PMID: 28102879.
6)

Cenic A, Bhandari M, Reddy K. Management of chronic subdural hematoma: a national survey and literature review. Can J Neurol Sci. 2005 Nov;32(4):501-6. PubMed PMID: 16408582.
7)

Emich S, Richling B, McCoy MR, Al-Schameri RA, Ling F, Sun L, Wang Y, Hitzl W. The efficacy of dexamethasone on reduction in the reoperation rate of chronic subdural hematoma – the DRESH study: straightforward study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2014 Jan 6;15(1):6. doi: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-6. PubMed PMID: 24393328; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3891985.

Burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma

Burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma

Burr hole trephination for drainage of chronic subdural hematomas are routine operative procedures done by neurosurgery residents.

Burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma with a closed drainage system

Double burr hole trepanation combined with a subperiostal passive closed-drainage system is a technically easy, highly effective, safe, and cost-efficient treatment strategy for symptomatic chronic subdural hematomas. The absence of a drain in direct contact with the hematoma capsule may moderate the risk of postoperative seizure and limit the secondary spread of infection to intracranial compartments 1).

The main aim of surgery should be a complete removal of the aggressive liquid. In case of many membranes that separate the hematoma into chambers like honeycomb an open procedure cannot be avoided. Nevertheless, the preferred operative therapy for most of CSDH is a burr hole craniostomy with a closed drainage system 2) 3).

Surgical Technique

Surgical safety checklist

see Surgical safety checklist.

Preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis

see Preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis.

Skin Preparation

see Skin Preparation.

Positioning

Preferably under general anesthesia the surgical approach should be over the thickest part of the hematoma and the patients positioned in a way that the burr hole comes to the highest point to avoid pneumocephalus.

Therefore, the head is rotated and the ipsilateral shoulder is usually padded.

The supine position is used with the patient‘s head rotated for temporal access. Extremes of head rotation can obstruct the jugular venous drainage, and a shoulder roll can combat this problem or lateral positioning (park bench position).

Skin incision

Sites of predilection are frontal about 1 cm anterior to the coronal suture or parietal posterior to the parietal eminence. The area around Kocher’s point offers a safe entry without injury of branches of the middle meningeal artery or the motor strip. Additionally, the skin incision should be brought, if possible, into alignment with an eventual future skin flap for craniotomy. A curved flap avoids a burr hole position directly under the skin cut and a possible impaired wound-healing as a consequence. Further, the base of the C-shaped incision should be opposite of the planned direction of the drain tip. Obviously, a kinking of the drain is obviated 4).

Burr Holes

A performed burr hole with a diameter of 14 mm enables a sufficient angulation of the drain tip and allows an insertion of the drainage close to the calvaria.

Diren and Ozdemir found that an increase in the width of burr hole craniotomy (BHC), especially the posterior BHC, contributed to the improvement in midline shift 5).

Dura mater opening

The dura mater is coagulated and cut in a stellate fashion.

Technical issues

Under direct vision, the external membrane is perforated by the tips of the bipolar forceps. In general, there are the open or the closed ways of evacuation of the hematoma after the drain is inserted 6)

The open variant should be chosen only if irrigation is desired: the dura and external membrane are opened widely so that the fluid of the hematoma and irrigation can drip out beside the drain during rinsing. Removal of the fluid enriched with inflammatory mediators is considered obviously as an advantage, although a remaining pneumocephalus is seen as an approved factor of recurrence 7) 8).

In the closed way the aim is that no air enters the subdural space. Before the dural opening the drain is tunneled beneath the galea in the direction towards the middle of the base of the skin flap. A distance from the burr hole to the drain’s exit point of at least 5 cm prevents infection 9).

Then the dura and external membrane are incised. This opening should have the same diameter as the drain to allow for a watertight and airtight drain introduction. The hematoma can therefore be evacuated only through the drain: the more fluid that is going to be collected, the more negative pressure that will be built up, which helps the brain to unfold again.

The dura is covered with a small piece of a gelatin sponge and the burr hole is filled and with bone chips collected at the beginning.

The last steps are to connect the drain to a closed collecting system and secure the connection and the exit point from the skin with sutures.

Drain insertion after CSDH drainage is important, but position (subgaleal or subdural) and duration did not appear to influence recurrence rate or clinical outcomes. Similarly, drain location did not influence recurrence rate nor outcomes where both parietal and frontal burr holes were made. Further prospective cohort studies or randomized controlled trials could provide further clarification 10).

Videos

References

1)

Zumofen D, Regli L, Levivier M, Krayenbühl N. Chronic subdural hematomas treated by burr hole trepanation and a subperiostal drainage system. Neurosurgery. 2009 Jun;64(6):1116-21; discussion 1121-2. doi: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000345633.45961.BB. PubMed PMID: 19487891.
2)

Santarius T, Kirkpatrick PJ, Ganesan D, Chia HL, Jalloh I, Smielewski P, Richards HK, Marcus H, Parker RA, Price SJ, Kirollos RW, Pickard JD, Hutchinson PJ (2009) Use of drains versus no drains after burr-hole evacuation of chronic subdural haematoma: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 374:1067–1073
3)

Weigel R, Schmiedek P, Krauss JK (2003) Outcome of contemporary surgery for chronic subdural haematoma: evidence based review. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74:937–943
4)

Emich S, Dollenz M, Winkler PA. Burr hole is not burr hole: technical considerations to the evacuation of chronic subdural hematomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2015 Jan 13. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 25578345.
5)

Diren F, Ozdemir O. The effectiveness of Burr-hole sizes on midline shift and hematoma thickness in the treatment of chronic subdural hematoma. World Neurosurg. 2023 Apr 20:S1878-8750(23)00546-6. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2023.04.062. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 37087033.
6)

Tosaka M, Sakamoto K, Watanabe S, Yodonawa M, Kunimine H, Aishima K, Fujii T, Yoshimoto Y (2013) Critical classification of craniostomy for chronic subdural hematoma; safer technique for hematoma aspiration. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 53:273–278
7)

Mori K, Maeda M (2001) Surgical treatment of chronic subdural hematoma in 500 consecutive cases: clinical characteristics, surgical outcome, complications, and recurrence rate. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 41:371–381
8)

Stanišić M, Hald J, Rasmussen IA, Pripp AH, Ivanović J, Kolstad F, Sundseth J, Züchner M, Lindegaard KF (2013) Volume and densities of chronic subdural haematoma obtained from CT imaging as predictors of postoperative recurrence: a prospective study of 107 operated patients. Acta Neurochir 155:323–333
9)

Berghauser Pont LM, Dammers R, Schouten JW, Lingsma HF, Dirven CM (2012) Clinical factors associated with outcome in chronic subdural haematoma: a retrospective cohort study of patients on preoperative corticosteroid therapy. Neurosurgery 70:873–880
10)

Glancz LJ, Poon MTC, Coulter IC, Hutchinson PJ, Kolias AG, Brennan PM. Does Drain Position and Duration Influence Outcomes in Patients Undergoing Burr-Hole Evacuation of Chronic Subdural Hematoma? Lessons from a UK Multicenter Prospective Cohort Study. Neurosurgery. 2019 Oct 1;85(4):486-493. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyy366. PubMed PMID: 30169738.

Chronic subdural hematoma

Chronic subdural hematoma

J.Sales-Llopis

Neurosurgery Department, University General Hospital of Alicante, Spain

Latest Pubmed Related Articles

.

Definition

Chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) is an encapsulated collection of old blood, mostly or totally liquefied and located between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater.

They are arbitrarily defined as those hematomas presenting 21 days or more after injury. These numbers are not absolute, and a more accurate classification of a subdural hematoma usually is based on imaging characteristics.

International Classification of Diseases

The ICD-10-CM (Clinical Modification) code for CSDH is S06.5×5. The code describes a traumatic subdural hematoma, which includes chronic subdural hematoma as well as acute subdural hematoma. The S06.5×5 code is used to identify and track CSDH cases in health information systems.

The ICD-11 also provides a specific code for CSDH (8A62). This code falls under the category of “intracranial and spinal haemorrhage” and provides a more detailed classification of the condition.

Yordanov et al. reported on the accuracy of diagnostic ICD codes for identifying patients with CSDH from retrospective electronic data and explore whether basic demographic data could improve the identification of CSDH.

Data were collected retrospectively from the hospital administrative system between 2014 and 2018 of all patients coded with either S065 or I620. Analysis of the ICD codes in identifying patients with CSDH diagnosis was calculated using the caretR package in RStudioR,.and stepwise logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the best predictive model for CSDH.

A total of 1861 patients were identified. Of these, 189 (10.2%) had a diagnosis of non-traumatic SDH (I620) and 1672 (89.8%) traumatic subdural haematomas (S065). Variables that identified CSDH as a diagnosis on univariate logistic regression included male sex (Odds Ratios (OR) – 1.606 (1.197-2.161), elderly age (OR) – 1.023 (1.015-1.032) per year for age (p < 0.001) and shorter length of hospital stay. Using stepwise regression against AIC the best model to predict CSDH included male sex, older age, and shorter LOS. The calculated sensitivity for identifying CSDH with the model is 88.4% with a specificity of 84.5% and PPV of 87.9%.

CSDH is a common neurosurgical pathology with increasing incidence and ongoing unmet clinical need. We demonstrate that case ascertainment for research purposes can be improved with the incorporation of additional demographic data but at the expense of significant case exclusion 1)

History

Chronic subdural hematoma history

COVID-19 in chronic subdural hematoma

COVID-19 in chronic subdural hematoma

Epidemiology

Chronic subdural hematoma epidemiology.

Etiology

see Chronic subdural hematoma etiology.

Chemokines in Chronic Subdural Hematoma

Chemokines in Chronic Subdural Hematoma

Classification

see Chronic subdural hematoma classification.

Pathophysiology

Chronic subdural hematoma pathophysiology.

Pathology

cSDHs have a tendency to persist and gradually increase in volume over time. The disease is thought to be related to a cycle of chronic inflammation and angiogenesis. An original hemorrhage forms and fibrinolysis ensues with the liquefaction of the initial clot. The subsequent blood breakdown products stimulate inflammation and thickening of the inner dural layer (ie, ‘dural border cells). This process incites angiogenesis with the ingrowth of immature capillaries, which chronically leak blood. These microhemorrhages result in the progressive enlargement of the collection with increased fibrinolytic activity, inflammation, and further angiogenesis, membrane formation, and vessel proliferation. The rate of accumulation of blood products outpaces physiological reabsorption and the collection gradually enlarges. Thus the entire basis for the pathology is the formation of leaky vascular membranes, which incite a positive feedback cycle of continued hemorrhage, inflammation, and angiogenesis 2) 3)

Chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) is characterized by an “old” encapsulated collection of blood and blood breakdown products between the brain and its outermost covering (the dura).

It is delimited by an outer and inner membrane. In between are blood, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, membranes, and a mixture of inflammatory angiogenic fibrinolytic and coagulation factors. These factors maintain a self-perpetuating cycle of bleeding, lysis, and growing of neo-membranes and neo-capillaries 4).

Clinical Features

see Chronic subdural hematoma clinical features.

Scales

Glasgow Coma Scale.

Markwalder grading score.

Modified Rankin Scale.

Oslo grading system.

Diagnosis

Chronic subdural hematoma diagnosis

Biomarkers

The association between the biomarkers of inflammation and angiogenesis, and the clinical and radiological characteristics of CSDH patients, need further investigation. The high number of biomarkers compared to the number of observations, the correlation between biomarkers, missing data and skewed distributions may limit the usefulness of classical statistical methods.

Pripp et al. explored lasso regression to assess the association between 30 biomarkers of inflammation and angiogenesis at the site of lesions, and selected clinical and radiological characteristics in a cohort of 93 patients. Lasso regression performs both variable selection and regularization to improve the predictive accuracy and interpretability of the statistical model. The results from the lasso regression showed analysis exhibited lack of robust statistical association between the biomarkers in hematoma fluid with age, gender, brain infarct, neurological deficiencies and volume of hematoma. However, there were associations between several of the biomarkers with postoperative recurrence requiring reoperation. The statistical analysis with lasso regression supported previous findings that the immunological characteristics of CSDH are local. The relationship between biomarkers, the radiological appearance of lesions and recurrence requiring reoperation have been inclusive using classical statistical methods on these data, but lasso regression revealed an association with inflammatory and angiogenic biomarkers in hematoma fluid. They suggest that lasso regression should be a recommended statistical method in research on biological processes in CSDH patients 5).

Differential diagnosis

Chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) is a disease of the meninges and is to be distinguished from hygroma and subdural empyema.

Subdural effusion in the setting of dural metastases is very rare and may be difficult to be distinguished from chronic subdural hematoma. Such lesions could be missed and could be the cause of recurrence in CSDH. A contrast-enhanced brain CT scan is recommended to diagnose dural metastases.

Rosai–Dorfman disease may be mistaken for a CSDH on imaging. This disease is an uncommon, benign systemic histioproliferative disease characterized by massive lymphadenopathy, particularly in the head and neck region, and is often associated with extranodal involvement. CSDH can also develop in multifocal fibrosclerosis (MFS) which is a rare disorder of unknown etiology, characterized by chronic inflammation with dense fibrosis and lymphoplasmacytic infiltration into the connective tissue of various organs. The mechanism of the formation of CSDH is presumed to involve reactive granular membrane together with subdural collection. On the other hand, the extramedullary erythropoiesis within CSDH can be confused with metastatic malignant tumors, such as lymphoma, carcinoma, and malignant melanoma 6).

A 44-year old woman with gastric adenocarcinoma was presented with headache and a hypodense subdural collection in right fronto-parietal in brain CT. Burr-hole irrigation was performed with the impression of chronic subdural hematoma, but nonhemorrhagic xantochromic fluid was evacuated without malignant cell. Brain CT on the 11th day depicted fluid re-accumulation and noticeable midline shift, necessitating craniotomy and removing the affected dura.

Because the affected dura can be supposed as the main source of subdural effusion, resection of the involved dura is obligatory for the appropriate palliative management of such patients 7).

Treatment

see Chronic subdural hematoma treatment.

Outcome

see Chronic subdural hematoma outcome.

Complications

The progression of CSDH is an angiogenic process, involving inflammatory mediators that affect vascular permeability, microvascular leakage, and hematoma thickness.

see Chronic subdural hematoma surgery complication.

Recurrence

see Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence.

Systematic Reviews

Chronic subdural hematoma systematic reviews.

Bibliometrics

A bibliometrics retrieved 1424 CSDH-related articles published since the beginning of the twenty-first century. There was a general increase in both the number of published articles and the mean number of citations. The authors, institutions, and journals that contributed the most to the field of CSDH were Jianning Zhang, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, and world neurosurgery, respectively. The reference co-citation network identified 13 clusters with significant modularity Q scores and silhouette scores (Q = 0.7124, S = 0.8536). The major research categories were (1) the evolution of the therapeutic method and (2) the etiology and pathology of CSDH. Keyword analysis revealed that ‘middle meningeal artery embolization‘ was the latest burst keyword.

This study identified the most influential countries, authors, institutions, and journals contributing to CSDH research and discussed the hotspots and the latest subjects of CSDH research 8)

Case series

see Chronic subdural hematoma case series.

Case reports

see Chronic subdural hematoma case reports.

Research

Trials

A prospective, multicenter, open-label, blinded endpoint randomized controlled trial designed to include 304 participants over the age of 18-90 years presenting with a symptomatic CSDH verified on cranial computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging. Participants will be randomly allocated to perform exhaustive drainage (treatment group) or fixed-time drainage (control group) after a one-burr hole craniostomy. The primary endpoint will be recurrence indicating a reoperation within 6 months.

This study will validate the effect and safety of exhaustive drainage after one-burr hole craniostomy in reducing recurrence rates and provide critical information to improve CSDH surgical management.

Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov, NCT04573387. Registered on October 5, 2020 9).

Experimental models

Attempts to create CSDH have been made in mice, rats, cats, dogs and monkeys. Methods include injection or surgical implantation of clotted blood or various other blood products and mixtures into the potential subdural space or the subcutaneous space. No intracranial model produced a progressively expanding CSDH. Transient hematoma expansion with liquification could be produced by subcutaneous injections in some models. Spontaneous subdural blood collections were found after creation of hydrocephalus in mice by systemic injection of the neurotoxin, 6-aminonicotinamide. The histology of the hematoma membranes in several models resembles the appearance in humans. None of the models has been replicated since its first description.

D’Abbondanza et al. did not find a report of a reproducible, well-described animal model of human CSDH 10).

Retracted articles

Zhuang Y, Jiang M, Zhou J, Liu J, Fang Z, Chen Z. Surgical Treatment of Bilateral Chronic Subdural Hematoma. Comput Intell Neurosci. 2022 Jun 27;2022:2823314. doi: 10.1155/2022/2823314. Retraction in: Comput Intell Neurosci. 2022 Dec 25;2022:9806807. PMID: 35795746; PMCID: PMC9252673.

References

1)

Yordanov S, Khan S, Stubbs D, Davies B, Santarius T, Hutchinson P, Joannides A. Assessing the accuracy of the International Classification of Disease (ICD) framework in the identification of patients with chronic subdural haematoma from hospital records. Surgeon. 2023 Mar 24:S1479-666X(23)00020-3. doi: 10.1016/j.surge.2023.02.001. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 36967307.
2)

Ito H , Yamamoto S , Komai T , et al . Role of local hyperfibrinolysis in the etiology of chronic subdural hematoma. J Neurosurg 1976;45:26–31.doi:10.3171/jns.1976.45.1.0026
3)

Edlmann E , Giorgi-Coll S , Whitfield PC , et al . Pathophysiology of chronic subdural haematoma: inflammation, angiogenesis and implications for pharmacotherapy. J Neuroinflammation 2017;14:108.doi:10.1186/s12974-017-0881-y
4)

Frati A, Salvati M, Mainiero F, Ippoliti F, Rocchi G, Raco A, Caroli E, Cantore G, Delfini R (2004) Inflammation markers and risk factors for recurrence in 35 patients with a posttraumatic chronic subdural haematoma: a prospective study. J Neurosurg 100:24–32
5)

Pripp AH, Stanišić M. Association between biomarkers and clinical characteristics in chronic subdural hematoma patients assessed with lasso regression. PLoS One. 2017 Nov 6;12(11):e0186838. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186838. eCollection 2017. PubMed PMID: 29107999.
6)

Yadav YR, Parihar V, Namdev H, Bajaj J. Chronic subdural hematoma. Asian J Neurosurg. 2016 Oct-Dec;11(4):330-342. Review. PubMed PMID: 27695533; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4974954.
7)

Mirsadeghi SM, Habibi Z, Meybodi KT, Nejat F, Tabatabai SA. Malignant subdural effusion associated with disseminated adenocarcinoma: a case report. Cases J. 2008 Nov 18;1(1):328. doi: 10.1186/1757-1626-1-328. PubMed PMID: 19019205; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2611978.
8)

Chen R, Wei Y, Xu X, Zhang R, Tan Y, Zhang G, Yin H, Dai D, Li Q, Zhao R, Huang Q, Xu Y, Yang P, Liu J, Zuo Q. A bibliometric analysis of chronic subdural hematoma since the twenty-first century. Eur J Med Res. 2022 Dec 27;27(1):309. doi: 10.1186/s40001-022-00959-7. PMID: 36572939.
9)

Wu L, Ou Y, Zhu B, Guo X, Yu X, Xu L, Li J, Feng E, Li H, Wang X, Chen H, Sun Z, Liu Z, Yang D, Zhang H, Liu Z, Tang J, Zhao S, Zhang G, Yao J, Ma D, Sun Z, Zhou H, Liu B, Liu W; ECHO Trial Collaborators. Exhaustive drainage versus fixed-time drainage for chronic subdural hematoma after one-burr hole craniostomy (ECHO): study protocol for a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2023 Mar 20;24(1):207. doi: 10.1186/s13063-023-07250-y. PMID: 36941714; PMCID: PMC10029260.
10)

D’Abbondanza JA, Loch Macdonald R. Experimental models of chronic subdural hematoma. Neurol Res. 2014 Feb;36(2):176-88. doi: 10.1179/1743132813Y.0000000279. Epub 2013 Dec 6. Review. PubMed PMID: 24172841.

Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence prevention

Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence prevention

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses

In total, 402 studies were included in this analysis and 32 potential risk factors were evaluated. Among these, 21 were significantly associated with the postoperative recurrence of CSDH. Three risk factors (male, bilateral hematoma, and no drainage) had convincing evidence 1).

Subdural drain

The single most important factor appears to be the residual subdural space after drainage of the chronic subdural hematoma and an effort should be made by the surgeon to facilitate the expansion of the underlying brain. The presence of a functioning drain for 48–72 h draining the subdural fluid and promoting brain expansion will reduce the subdural space, thus reducing the recurrence of the CSDH. Some of the relevant surgical nuances include placement of at least two burr holes with the burr holes located to drain multiple cavities, copious irrigation of the subdural space, placement of the drain in the dependent burr hole site, near-total filling of the subdural space with irrigation to prevent a pneumocephalus and placing a subdural drain. Closure of the site with a large piece of Gelfoam prevents the subgaleal blood to migrate into the subdural space.

Postoperative subdural drain of maximal 48 h is effective in reducing recurrent hematomas. However, the shortest possible drainage time without increasing the recurrence rate is unknown

see Subdural drain for chronic subdural hematoma

Middle meningeal artery embolization

see Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma

Effect of Irrigation Fluid

The effect of a physical property of irrigation solution (at body vs room temperature) on the chronic subdural hematoma recurrence rate needs further study.

Objective: To explore whether irrigation fluid temperature has an influence on cSDH recurrence.

Design, setting, and participants: This was a multicenter randomized clinical trial performed between March 16, 2016, and May 30, 2020. The follow-up period was 6 months. The study was conducted at 3 neurosurgical departments in Sweden. All patients older than 18 years undergoing cSDH evacuation during the study period were screened for eligibility in the study.

Interventions: The study participants were randomly assigned by 1:1 block randomization to the cSDH evacuation procedure with irrigation fluid at room temperature (RT group) or at body temperature (BT group).

Main outcomes and measures: The primary end point was recurrence requiring reoperation within 6 months. Secondary end points were mortality, health-related quality of life, and complication frequency.

Results: At 6 months after surgery, 541 patients (mean [SD] age, 75.8 [9.8] years; 395 men [73%]) had a complete follow-up according to protocol. There were 39 of 277 recurrences (14%) requiring reoperation in the RT group, compared with 16 of 264 recurrences (6%) in the BT group (odds ratio, 2.56; 95% CI, 1.38-4.66; P < .001). There were no significant differences in mortality, health-related quality of life, or complication frequency.

Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, irrigation at body temperature was superior to irrigation at room temperature in terms of fewer recurrences. This is a simple, safe, and readily available technique to optimize outcome in patients with cSDH. When irrigation is used in cSDH surgery, irrigation fluid at body temperature should be considered standard of care.

Trial registration: ClincalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02757235 2).

Half-saline solution

A study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of half-saline solution for irrigation in burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma.

This randomized clinical trial was conducted in university hospital referral centers from 2020 to 2021. Sixty-three patients with chronic subdural hematoma eligible for burr hole trephination were primarily enrolled. Two patients were excluded because of concurrent stroke. Sixty-one patients were randomly allocated into case (HS=30) and control (normal-saline [NS]=31) groups. HS was used to irrigate the hematoma in the case group and NS was used in the control group. The patients were followed-up. Clinical variables including demographic and medical findings, postoperative computed tomography findings, postoperative complications, hospitalization period, recurrence rate, and functional status measured by the Barthel type B index were recorded.

Forty-six of 61 patients were male (75.4%), and the patients’ mean age was 65.4±16.9 years, with equal distribution between the 2 groups. Postoperative effusion and postoperative hospital stay duration were significantly lower in the HS group than in the NS group (p=0.002 and 0.033, respectively). The postoperative recurrence within 3 months in both groups was approximately equal (6.6%). In terms of functional outcomes and postoperative complications, HS showed similar results to those of NS.

Conclusion: HS as an irrigation fluid in BHC effectively reduced postoperative effusion and hospital stay duration without considerable complications.

Trial registration: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials Identifier: IRCT20200608047688N1 3).

Goreisan

Goreisan for chronic subdural hematoma recurrence prevention.

1)

Zhu F, Wang H, Li W, Han S, Yuan J, Zhang C, Li Z, Fan G, Liu X, Nie M, Bie L. Factors correlated with the postoperative recurrence of chronic subdural hematoma: An umbrella study of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. EClinicalMedicine. 2021 Dec 20;43:101234. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.101234. PMID: 34988412; PMCID: PMC8703229.
2)

Bartley A, Bartek J Jr, Jakola AS, Sundblom J, Fält M, Förander P, Marklund N, Tisell M. Effect of Irrigation Fluid Temperature on Recurrence in the Evacuation of Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Neurol. 2022 Nov 21. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.4133. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 36409480.
3)

Mahmoodkhani M, Sharafi M, Sourani A, Tehrani DS. Half-Saline Versus Normal-Saline as Irrigation Solutions in Burr Hole Craniostomy to Treat Chronic Subdural Hematomata: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Korean J Neurotrauma. 2022 Sep 29;18(2):221-229. doi: 10.13004/kjnt.2022.18.e47. PMID: 36381457; PMCID: PMC9634318.

Chronic Subdural Hematoma Surgical Technique

Chronic Subdural Hematoma Surgical Technique

(1) Twist drill craniostomy for chronic subdural hematoma is a relatively safe technique that can be employed under local anesthesia and thus can be considered as first-line treatment in high-risk surgical candidates. (2) Single and double burr hole craniotomies have shown comparable results. (3) Intraoperative irrigation during burr-hole craniostomy doesn’t affect the outcome. (4) Drain insertion after hematoma evacuation lowers the recurrence risk. (5) Position of the drain is not significant but early drain removal is associated with higher recurrence rates. (6) Craniotomy is associated with high morbidity and mortality, hence should be reserved for recurrent and large septate hematoma cases. (7) Head elevation in the postoperative period reduces recurrence. (8) Embolization of the middle meningeal artery (EMMA): A novel treatment modality, is promising but requires further approval in terms of large sample-sized multicenter randomized control trials. In conclusion, further research is required on the subject to formulate guidelines regarding the management of this common neurosurgical emergency 1)

Due to the lack of consensus treatment, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) has begun to be investigated to promote drainage and has shown promise in some early studies in reducing recurrence rates.

The most usual procedures for chronic subdural hematoma treatment include single or multiple burr hole drainage craniectomy. There is still controversy, however, about the risks and benefits of the different surgical approaches and types of drainage.

Till 1970s, craniotomy was the most commonly used method. Burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma became the most preferred method from 1980s. In 1977, Twist drill craniostomy for chronic subdural hematoma was introduced. Closed system drainage after a Burr hole (BH) or a Twist drill (TD) became the most frequently used surgical method 2).

Pre-operative evaluation of radiological features of CSDHs is crucial in determining the right indication for minimally invasive drainage. Minimally invasive treatments of CSH may reduce the use of anaesthetic drugs and worsening of pre-existing neurodegenerative disorders 3).

The duration of procedure was significantly more in Burr-Hole Craniostomy BHC than in Twist-Drill Craniostomy TDC. In postoperative outcome, there was no significant difference in the GCS score, motor power improvement, motor power deterioration, overall clinical improvement, and improvement in CT scans of both the groups. Postoperative residue requiring reoperation was significantly more in TDC group. There was no significant difference in the development acute SDH, reoperation rate, complications, death, and hospital stay in both the groups. Avoiding the complications of general anesthesia and giving the equal postoperative improvement and complications of BHC, the TDC is considered as an effective alternative to the BHC in the surgical management of CSDH 4)

Although nonsurgical treatment is often successful, trephination has more advantages, such as rapid resolution of the symptoms and short period of hospitalization. Nonsurgical treatment is possible in asymptomatic patients with a small CSDH. For the symptomatic patients with CSDH, trephination is the treatment of choice, either by BH or TD. In gray zone between surgery and medical treatment, shared decision making can be an ideal approach. For chronic subdural hematoma recurrences, repeated trephination is still effective for patients with a low risk of recurrence. If the risk of recurrence is high, additional management would be helpful. For the refractory CSDHs, it is necessary to obliterate the subdural space 5).

Chronic subdural hematoma treatment in the elderly include observation, operative burr holes or craniotomy, and bedside twist drill drainage. The decision on which technique to use should be determined by weighing the comorbidities and symptoms of the patient with the potential risks and benefits.

Chronic subdural hematoma are ideally treated with surgical drainage. Despite this common practice, there is still controversy surrounding the best surgical procedure. With lack of clear evidence of a superior technique, surgeons are free to base the decision on other factors that are not related to patient care.

Originally, CSDHs were treated by open craniotomy 6) 7) 8) 9). Later burr hole trephination (BHT) was adopted because it was less invasive with lower morbidity and recurrence rates when compared with standard craniotomy 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15).

The traditional methods include evacuation via a burr hole with closed system drainage with or without irrigation, two burr-hole craniostomy with closed system drainage with irrigation or craniotomy, with subdural drain or without drain placement.

Minicraniotomy (MC) emerged as an attractive alternative to BHT as it allows better visualisation of the subdural cavity, enabling better haemostasis and resection of membranes.

Although bedside twist drill evacuation may avoid operating room costs and anesthetic complications in an elderly patient population and allow earlier anticoagulation resumption treatment if necessary, there is also a risk of morbidity if uncontrolled bleeding is encountered or the patient is unable to tolerate the bedside procedure. However, bedside twist drill craniostomy is a reasonable and effective option for the treatment of subacute/chronic SDH in patients who may not be optimal surgical candidates 16).

Subperiosteal vs Subdural Drain After Burr-Hole Drainage of Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial (cSDH-Drain-Trial) 17).

Burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma

see Burr hole trephination for chronic subdural hematoma.

Twist drill craniotomy for chronic subdural hematoma

see Twist drill craniostomy for chronic subdural hematoma.

Subdural drain for chronic subdural hematoma

see Subdural drain for chronic subdural hematoma.

Subdural evacuating port system for chronic subdural hematoma

see Subdural evacuating port system for chronic subdural hematoma.

Subperiosteal drain for chronic subdural hematoma

see Subperiosteal drain for chronic subdural hematoma

Craniotomy for chronic subdural hematoma

see Craniotomy for chronic subdural hematoma.

Neuroendoscopy

see Chronic subdural hematoma neuroendoscopy.

References

1)

Siddique AN, Khan SA, Khan AA, Aurangzeb A. Surgical Treatment Options For Chronic Subdural Haematoma. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad. 2022 Jul-Sep;34(3):550-556. doi: 10.55519/JAMC-03-10225. PMID: 36377174.
2) , 5)

Lee KS. How to Treat Chronic Subdural Hematoma? Past and Now. J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 2019 Mar;62(2):144-152. doi: 10.3340/jkns.2018.0156. Epub 2018 Nov 30. PubMed PMID: 30486622; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6411568.
3)

Certo F, Maione M, Altieri R, Garozzo M, Toccaceli G, Peschillo S, Barbagallo GMV. Pros and cons of a minimally invasive percutaneous subdural drainage system for evacuation of chronic subdural hematoma under local anesthesia. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2019 Oct 10;187:105559. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2019.105559. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 31639631.
4)

Thavara BD, Kidangan GS, Rajagopalawarrier B. Comparative Study of Single Burr-Hole Craniostomy versus Twist-Drill Craniostomy in Patients with Chronic Subdural Hematoma. Asian J Neurosurg. 2019 Apr-Jun;14(2):513-521. doi: 10.4103/ajns.AJNS_37_19. PubMed PMID: 31143272; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6516027.
6)

Ernestus R, Beldzinski P, Lanfermann H, Klug N. Chronic subdural hematoma: surgical treatment and outcome in 104 patients. Surg Neurol 1997;48:220–5.
7)

McKissock W, Richardson A, Bloom WH. Subdural hematoma: a review of 389 cases. Lancet 1960;1:1365–9.
8)

Tyson G et al. The role of craniectomy in the treatment of chronic subdural hematomas. J Neurosurg 1980;52:776–81.
9)

Putnam IJ, Cushing H. Chronic subdural hematoma. Its pathology, its relation to pachymeningitis hemorrhagica, and its surgical treatment. Arch Surg 1925;11:329–93.
10)

Chronic Almenawer S et al. Subdural hematoma management: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 34829 patients. Ann Surg 2014;259(3):449–57.
11)

Lee J, Ebel H, Ernestus R, Klug N. Various surgical treatments of chronic subdural hematoma and outcome in 172 patients: is membranectomy necessary? Surg Neurol 2004;61:523–5528.
12)

Ducruet A et al. The surgical management of chronic subdural hematoma. Neurosurg Rev 2012;35:155–69.
13)

Leroy H et al. Predictors of functional outcomes and recurrence of chronic subdural. J Clin Neurosci 2015;22:1895–900.
14)

Regan J, Worley E, Shelburne C, Pullarkat R, Burr Watson J. Hole Washout versus craniotomy for chronic subdural hematoma: patient outcome and cost analysis. PLoS One 2015;10(1):1–8.
15)

Mondorf Y, Abu-Owaimer M, Gaab M, Oertel J. Chronic subdural hematoma – Craniotomy versus burr hole trephination. Br J Neurosurg 2009;23(6):612–6.
16)

Garber S, McCaffrey J, Quigley EP, MacDonald JD. Bedside Treatment of Chronic Subdural Hematoma: Using Radiographic Characteristics to Revisit the Twist Drill. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg. 2016 Jan 25. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 26807616.
17)

Agrawal A, Pacheco-Hernandez A, Moscote-Salazar LR. Letter: Subperiosteal vs Subdural Drain After Burr-Hole Drainage of Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Randomized Clinical Trial (cSDH-Drain-Trial). Neurosurgery. 2019 Aug 6. pii: nyz289. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyz289. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 31387117.

Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma trials

Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma trials

Several randomized controlled trials are planned or ongoing. In most of these trials, conventional neurosurgical treatment with or without adjunctive endovascular embolization is compared.

Given the encouraging results with a 91% long-term success rate in the series of Link et al., a large scale clinical trial is warranted 1).

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03307395

A proposed trial aimed to conduct a head-to-head comparison between neurosurgical and endovascular treatment as stand-alone treatments.

The trial is academically driven and funded within existing public healthcare systems and infrastructure. Patients with uni- or bilateral cSDH, presenting with mild-to moderate symptoms, and admitted to neurosurgery on clinical grounds will be offered participation. Subjects are randomized 1:1 between conventional neurosurgical treatment (control) and endovascular embolization of the middle meningeal artery (intervention). Primary endpoint is reoperation due to clinically and/or radiologically significant recurrence within 3 months. Secondary endpoints include safety, technical success rate, neurological disability, and quality of life.

There are mounting retrospective data suggesting eMMA, as sole treatment or as an adjunctive to neurosurgery for cSDH, is safe and effective with a reoperation rate lower than neurosurgical hematoma evacuation alone. If randomized controlled trials confirm these findings, there is a potential for a paradigm shift in the treatment of cSDH where a minimally invasive procedure can replace open surgery in a large and oftentimes old and fragile patient cohort.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT05267184 . Registered March 4, 2022 2).

MEMBRANE is an investigator-initiated, single-center, randomized controlled trial. Male, female, and diverse patients older than 18 years scheduled for surgical evacuation of a first chronic subdural hematoma will be assigned in a 1:1 fashion by block randomization to the chronic subdural hematoma treatment (surgery plus endovascular MMA embolization) or the control group (surgery alone). The primary trial endpoint is chronic subdural hematoma recurrence within 3 months of follow-up after surgery. Secondary endpoints comprise neurological deficits assessed by the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) and recurrence- or intervention-associated complications (see Chronic subdural hematoma surgery complications) see Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma complications during 3 months of follow-up. Assuming a risk difference of 20% of rebleeding and surgical revision, a power of 80%, and a drop-out rate of 10%, 154 patients will be enrolled in this trial, employing an adaptive O’Brien-Fleming approach with a planned interim analysis halfway.

The MEMBRANE trial will provide the first clinical experimental evidence on the effectiveness of endovascular embolization of the MMA as an adjunct to surgery to reduce the risk of recurrence after the evacuation of cSDH.

Trial registration: German Clinical Trials Registry (Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien [DRKS]) DRKS00020465. Registered on 18 Nov 2021 3).

1)

Link TW, Boddu S, Paine SM, Kamel H, Knopman J. Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization for Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Series of 60 Cases. Neurosurgery. 2019 Dec 1;85(6):801-807. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyy521. PMID: 30418606.
2)

Drake M, Ullberg T, Nittby H, Marklund N, Wassélius J. Swedish trial on embolization of middle meningeal artery versus surgical evacuation in chronic subdural hematoma (SWEMMA)-a national 12-month multi-center randomized controlled superiority trial with parallel group assignment, open treatment allocation and blinded clinical outcome assessment. Trials. 2022 Nov 8;23(1):926. doi: 10.1186/s13063-022-06842-4. PMID: 36348417.
3)

Hoenning A, Lemcke J, Rot S, Stengel D, Hoppe B, Zappel K, Schuss P, Mutze S, Goelz L. Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization Minimizes Burdensome Recurrence Rates After Newly Diagnosed Chronic Subdural Hematoma Evacuation (MEMBRANE): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2022 Aug 22;23(1):703. doi: 10.1186/s13063-022-06506-3. PMID: 35996195.

Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence

Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence

Epidemiology

In 2 large cohorts of US patients, approximately 5% to 10% of patients who underwent surgery for nontraumatic SDH were required to undergo repeated operation within 30 to 90 days. These results may inform the design of future prospective studies and trials and help practitioners calibrate their index of suspicion to ensure that patients are referred for timely surgical care 1).

Recurrence rates after chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) evacuation with any of actual techniques twist drill craniostomy (TDC), burr hole craniostomy, craniotomy range from 5% to 30%. 2).

Grading

Oslo grading system.

Risk factors

Hyperdense hematoma components were the strongest prognostic factor of recurrence after surgery. Awareness of these findings allows for individual risk assessment and might prompt clinicians to tailor treatment measures 3).

In the series of Santos et al. it was possible to demonstrate an age-related protective factor, analyzed as a continuous variable, regarding the recurrence of the chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH), with a lower rate of recurrence the higher the age.

The results indicate that, among possible factors associated with recurrence, only age presented a protective factor with statistical significance. The fact that no significant difference between the patients submitted to trepanning or craniotomy was found favors the preferential use of burr-hole surgery as a procedure of choice due to its fast and less complex execution 4).

In the series of Han et al. independent risk factors for recurrence were as follows: age > 75 years (HR 1.72, 95% CI 1.03-2.88; p = 0.039), obesity (body mass index ≥ 25.0 kg/m2), and a bilateral operation 5).

Chon et al. shown that postoperative midline shifting (≥5 mm), diabetes mellitus, preoperative seizure, preoperative width of hematoma (≥20 mm), and anticoagulant therapy were independent predictors of the recurrence of chronic subdural hematoma.

According to internal architecture of hematoma, the rate of recurrence was significantly lower in the homogeneous and the trabecular type than the laminar and separated type 6).

The recurrence rate of chronic subdural hematoma cSDH seems to be related to the excessive neoangiogenesis in the parietal membrane, which is mediated via vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This is found to be elevated in the hematoma fluid and is dependent on eicosanoid/prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis via cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2).

Anticoagulant therapy

see Chronic subdural hematoma and anticoagulant therapy.

Antiplatelet therapy

Antiplatelet therapy significantly influences the recurrence of CSDH 7).

Timing of Low-Dose Aspirin Discontinuation for chronic subdural hematoma

Timing of Low-Dose Aspirin Discontinuation for chronic subdural hematoma.

Pneumocephalus

Remaining pneumocephalus is seen as an approved factor of recurrence 8) 9).

Septation

Jack et al.found a 12% reoperation rate. CSDH septation (seen on computed tomogram scan) was found to be an independent risk factor for recurrence requiring reoperation (p=0.04). Larger post-operative subdural haematoma volume was also significantly associated with requiring a second drainage procedure (p<0.001). Independent risk factors of larger post-operative haematoma volume included septations within a CSDH (p<0.01), increased pre-operative haematoma volume (p<0.01), and a greater amount of parenchymal atrophy (p=0.04). A simple scoring system for quantifying recurrence risk was created and validated based on patient age (< or ≥80 years), haematoma volume (< or ≥160cc), and presence of septations within the subdural collection (yes or no).

Septations within CSDHs are associated with larger post-operative residual haematoma collections requiring repeat drainage. When septations are clearly visible within a CSDH, craniotomy might be more suitable as a primary procedure as it allows greater access to a septated subdural collection. The proposed scoring system combining haematoma volume, age, and presence of septations might be useful in identifying patients at higher risk for recurrence 10).

Membranectomy

Opening the internal hematoma membrane does not alter the rate of patients requiring revision surgery and the number of patients showing a marked residual hematoma six weeks after evacuation of a CSDH 11).

In the study of Lee et al, an extended surgical approach with partial membranectomy has no advantages regarding the rate of reoperation and the outcome. As initial treatment, burr-hole drainage with irrigation of the hematoma cavity and closed-system drainage is recommended. Extended craniotomy with membranectomy is now reserved for instances of acute rebleeding with solid hematoma 12).

Diabetes

Surgeons should consider informing patients with diabetes mellitus that this comorbidity is associated with an increased likelihood of recurrence

13) 14) 15).

Balser et al. report 11% recurrence, which included individuals who recurred as late as 3 years after initial diagnosis 16).

Close imaging follow-up is important for CSDH patients for recurrence prediction. Using quantitative CT volumetric analysis, strong evidence was provided that changes in the residual fluid volume during the ‘self-resolution’ period can be used as significantly radiological predictors of recurrence 17).

A structural equation model showed a significant association between increased antiinflammatory activity in hematoma fluid samples and a lower risk of recurrence, but this relationship was not statistically significant in venous blood samples. Moreover, these findings indicate that anti-inflammatory activities in the hematoma may play a role in the risk of a recurrence of CSDH 18).

Irrigation with artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACF) decreased the rate of CSDH recurrence 19).

Drainage system

Little is known about the best type of drainage system and its relationship with recurrence. In a study, Takroni et al. compared the use of two drainage systems on the recurrence rate of CSDH. They retrospectively analyzed the charts of 180 CSDH patients treated with bedside twist drill craniostomy (TDC) and subdural drain insertion. Patients were divided into two groups: Group A (n=123) received our traditional drain (pediatric size nasogastric tube (NGT), while group B (n=49) had the external ventricular drain (EVD). Various demographic and radiological data were collected. Our main outcome was recurrence, defined as symptomatic re-accumulation of hematoma on the previously operated side within 3 months. Results 212 cases of subdural hematoma were treated in 172 patients. Majority of patients were male (78%) and had a history of previous head trauma (73%). 17 cases had recurrence, 11 in the NGT group drain and 6 in the EVD group. The use of antiplatelet or anticoagulation agents was associated with recurrence (P= 0.038 and 0.05, respectively). There was no difference between both groups in terms of recurrence [OR=1.42, 95% CI:0.49 to 4.08, P=0.573].

Chronic subdural hematoma is a common disease with a high rate of recurrence. Although using a drain postoperatively has shown to improve the incidence of recurrence, little remains known about the best type of drain to use. The analysis showed no difference in the recurrent rate between using the pediatric size NGT and the EVD catheter post TDC 20).

Treatment

There is no definite operative procedure for patients with intractable chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH).

Most recurrent hematomas are managed successfully with burr hole craniostomies with postoperative closed-system drainage. Refractory hematomas may be managed with a variety of techniques, including craniotomy or subdural-peritoneal shunt placement 21).

Although many studies have reported risk factors or treatments in efforts to prevent recurrence, those have focused on single recurrence, and little cumulative data is available to analyze refractory CSDH.

Matsumoto et al. defined refractory CSDH as ≥2 recurrences, then analyzed and compared clinical factors between patients with single recurrence and those with refractory CSDH in a cohort study, to clarify whether patients with refractory CSDH experience different or more risk factors than patients with single recurrence, and whether burr-hole irrigation with closed-system drainage reduces refractory CSDH.

Seventy-five patients had at least one recurrence, with single recurrence in 62 patients and ≥2 recurrences in 13 patients. In comparing clinical characteristics, patients with refractory CSDH were significantly younger (P=0.04) and showed shorter interval to first recurrence (P<0.001). Organized CSDH was also significantly associated with refractory CSDH (P=0.02). Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified first recurrence interval <1 month (OR 6.66, P<0.001) and age <71 years (OR 4.16, P<0.001) as independent risk factors for refractory CSDH. On the other hand, burr-hole irrigation with closed-system drainage did not reduce refractory CSDH.

When patients with risk factors for refractory CSDH experience recurrence, alternative surgical procedures may be considered as the second surgery, because burr-hole irrigation with closed-system drainage did not reduce refractory CSDH 22).

Implantation of a reservoir 23) 24) 25).

Subdural-peritoneal shunt 26).

Middle meningeal artery embolization

Embolization of the MMA is effective for refractory CSDH or CSDH patients with a risk of recurrence, and is considered an effective therapeutic method to stop hematoma enlargement and promote resolution 27) 28) 29) 30) 31) 32).

A pilot study indicated that perioperative middle meningeal artery (MMA) embolization could be offered as the least invasive and most effectual means of treatment for resistant patients of CSDHs with 1 or more recurrences 33).

Chihara et al. have treated three cases of CSDH with MMA embolization to date, but there was a postoperative recurrence in one patient, which required a craniotomy for hematoma removal and capsulectomy. MMA embolization blocks the blood supply from the dura to the hematoma outer membrane in order to prevent recurrences of refractory CSDH. Histopathologic examination of the outer membrane of the hematoma excised during craniotomy showed foreign-body giant cells and neovascular proliferation associated with embolization. Because part of the hematoma was organized in this case, the CSDH did not resolve when the MMA was occluded, and the development of new collateral pathways in the hematoma outer membrane probably contributed to the recurrence. Therefore, in CSDH with some organized hematoma, MMA embolization may not be effective. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) should be performed in these patients before embolization 34).

Case series

see Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence case series.

Case reports

Chronic subdural hematoma recurrence case reports.

References

1)

Knopman J, Link TW, Navi BB, Murthy SB, Merkler AE, Kamel H. Rates of Repeated Operation for Isolated Subdural Hematoma Among Older Adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2018 Oct 5;1(6):e183737. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.3737. PubMed PMID: 30646255.
2)

Escosa Baé M, Wessling H, Salca HC, de Las Heras Echeverría P. Use of twist-drill craniostomy with drain in evacuation of chronic subdural hematomas: independent predictors of recurrence. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2011 May;153(5):1097-103. doi: 10.1007/s00701-010-0903-3. Epub 2010 Dec 31. PubMed PMID: 21193935.
3)

Miah IP, Tank Y, Rosendaal FR, Peul WC, Dammers R, Lingsma HF, den Hertog HM, Jellema K, van der Gaag NA; Dutch Chronic Subdural Hematoma Research Group. Radiological prognostic factors of chronic subdural hematoma recurrence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroradiology. 2020 Oct 22. doi: 10.1007/s00234-020-02558-x. Epub ahead of print. Erratum in: Neuroradiology. 2020 Nov 5;: PMID: 33094383.
4)

Santos RGD, Xander PAW, Rodrigues LHDS, Costa GHFD, Veiga JCE, Aguiar GB. Analysis of predisposing factors for chronic subdural hematoma recurrence. Rev Assoc Med Bras (1992). 2019 Jul 22;65(6):834-838. doi: 10.1590/1806-9282.65.6.834. PubMed PMID: 31340313.
5)

Han MH, Ryu JI, Kim CH, Kim JM, Cheong JH, Yi HJ. Predictive factors for recurrence and clinical outcomes in patients with chronic subdural hematoma. J Neurosurg. 2017 Nov;127(5):1117-1125. doi: 10.3171/2016.8.JNS16867. Epub 2016 Dec 16. PubMed PMID: 27982768.
6)

Chon KH, Lee JM, Koh EJ, Choi HY. Independent predictors for recurrence of chronic subdural hematoma. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2012 Sep;154(9):1541-8. doi: 10.1007/s00701-012-1399-9. Epub 2012 Jun 1. PubMed PMID: 22653496.
7)

Wada M, Yamakami I, Higuchi Y, Tanaka M, Suda S, Ono J, Saeki N. Influence of antiplatelet therapy on postoperative recurrence of chronic subdural hematoma: a multicenter retrospective study in 719 patients. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2014 May;120:49-54. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2014.02.007. Epub 2014 Feb 24. PubMed PMID: 24731576.
8)

Mori K, Maeda M (2001) Surgical treatment of chronic subdural hematoma in 500 consecutive cases: clinical characteristics, surgical outcome, complications, and recurrence rate. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 41:371–381
9)

Stanišić M, Hald J, Rasmussen IA, Pripp AH, Ivanović J, Kolstad F, Sundseth J, Züchner M, Lindegaard KF (2013) Volume and densities of chronic subdural haematoma obtained from CT imaging as predictors of postoperative recurrence: a prospective study of 107 operated patients. Acta Neurochir 155:323–333
10)

Jack A, O’Kelly C, McDougall C, Max Findlay J. Predicting Recurrence after Chronic Subdural Haematoma Drainage. Can J Neurol Sci. 2015 Jan 5:1-6. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 25557536.
11)

Unterhofer C, Freyschlag CF, Thomé C, Ortler M. Opening the Internal Hematoma Membrane does not Alter the Recurrence Rate of Chronic Subdural Hematomas – A Prospective Randomized Trial. World Neurosurg. 2016 May 2. pii: S1878-8750(16)30210-8. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2016.04.081. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 27150644.
12)

Lee JY, Ebel H, Ernestus RI, Klug N. Various surgical treatments of chronic subdural hematoma and outcome in 172 patients: is membranectomy necessary? Surg Neurol. 2004 Jun;61(6):523-7; discussion 527-8. PubMed PMID: 15165784.
13)

Matsumoto K, Akagi K, Abekura M, Ryujin H, Ohkawa M, Iwasa N, Akiyama C. Recurrence factors for chronic subdural hematomas after burr-hole craniostomy and closed system drainage. Neurol Res. 1999 Apr;21(3):277-80. PubMed PMID: 10319336.
14)

Yamamoto H, Hirashima Y, Hamada H, Hayashi N, Origasa H, Endo S. Independent predictors of recurrence of chronic subdural hematoma: results of multivariate analysis performed using a logistic regression model. J Neurosurg. 2003 Jun;98(6):1217-21. PubMed PMID: 12816267.
15)

Pang CH, Lee SE, Kim CH, Kim JE, Kang HS, Park CK, Paek SH, Kim CH, Jahng TA, Kim JW, Kim YH, Kim DG, Chung CK, Jung HW, Yoo H. Acute intracranial bleeding and recurrence after bur hole craniostomy for chronic subdural hematoma. J Neurosurg. 2015 Jul;123(1):65-74. doi: 10.3171/2014.12.JNS141189. Epub 2015 Feb 13. PubMed PMID: 25679282.
16)

Balser D, Rodgers SD, Johnson B, Shi C, Tabak E, Samadani U. Evolving management of symptomatic chronic subdural hematoma: experience of a single institution and review of the literature. Neurol Res. 2013 Apr;35(3):233-42. doi: 10.1179/1743132813Y.0000000166. Review. PubMed PMID: 23485050.
17)

Xu FF, Chen JH, Leung GK, Hao SY, Xu L, Hou ZG, Mao X, Shi GZ, Li JS, Liu BY. Quantitative computer tomography analysis of post-operative subdural fluid volume predicts recurrence of chronic subdural haematoma. Brain Inj. 2014;28(8):1121-6. doi: 10.3109/02699052.2014.910702. Epub 2014 May 6. PubMed PMID: 24801643.
18)

Pripp AH, Stanišić M. The Correlation between Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines in Chronic Subdural Hematoma Patients Assessed with Factor Analysis. PLoS One. 2014 Feb 27;9(2):e90149. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090149. eCollection 2014. PubMed PMID: 24587250.
19)

Adachi A, Higuchi Y, Fujikawa A, Machida T, Sueyoshi S, Harigaya K, Ono J, Saeki N. Risk factors in chronic subdural hematoma: comparison of irrigation with artificial cerebrospinal fluid and normal saline in a cohort analysis. PLoS One. 2014 Aug 4;9(8):e103703. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103703. eCollection 2014. PubMed PMID: 25089621; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4121178.
20)

Takroni R, Zagzoog N, Patel N, Martyniuk A, Farrokhyar F, Singh S, Trivedi A, Alotaibi M, Algird A. Comparison of two drainage systems on chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) recurrence. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg. 2021 Nov 16. doi: 10.1055/a-1698-6212. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 34784622.
21)

Desai VR, Scranton RA, Britz GW. Management of Recurrent Subdural Hematomas. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2017 Apr;28(2):279-286. doi: 10.1016/j.nec.2016.11.010. Epub 2017 Jan 4. Review. PubMed PMID: 28325462.
22)

Matsumoto H, Hanayama H, Okada T, Sakurai Y, Minami H, Masuda A, Tominaga S, Miyaji K, Yamaura I, Yoshida Y, Yoshida K. Clinical investigation of refractory chronic subdural hematoma: a comparison of clinical factors between single and repeated recurrences. World Neurosurg. 2017 Aug 24. pii: S1878-8750(17)31402-X. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.08.101. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 28844917.
23)

Sato M, Iwatsuki K, Akiyama C, Masana Y, Yoshimine T, Hayakawa T. [Use of Ommaya CSF reservoir for refractory chronic subdural hematoma]. No Shinkei Geka. 1999 Apr;27(4):323-8. Japanese. PubMed PMID: 10347846.
24)

Sato M, Iwatsuki K, Akiyama C, Kumura E, Yoshimine T. Implantation of a reservoir for refractory chronic subdural hematoma. Neurosurgery. 2001 Jun;48(6):1297-301. PubMed PMID: 11383733.
25)

Laumer R. Implantation of a reservoir for refractory chronic subdural hematoma. Neurosurgery. 2002 Mar;50(3):672. PubMed PMID: 11841742.
26)

Misra M, Salazar JL, Bloom DM. Subdural-peritoneal shunt: treatment for bilateral chronic subdural hematoma. Surg Neurol. 1996 Oct;46(4):378-83. PubMed PMID: 8876720.
27)

Mandai S, Sakurai M, Matsumoto Y. Middle meningeal artery embolization for refractory chronic subdural hematoma. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2000 Oct;93(4):686-8. PubMed PMID: 11014549.
28)

Takahashi K, Muraoka K, Sugiura T, Maeda Y, Mandai S, Gohda Y, Kawauchi M, Matsumoto Y. [Middle meningeal artery embolization for refractory chronic subdural hematoma: 3 case reports]. No Shinkei Geka. 2002 May;30(5):535-9. Japanese. PubMed PMID: 11993178.
29)

Hirai S, Ono J, Odaki M, Serizawa T, Nagano O. Embolization of the Middle Meningeal Artery for Refractory Chronic Subdural Haematoma. Usefulness for Patients under Anticoagulant Therapy. Interv Neuroradiol. 2004 Dec 24;10 Suppl 2:101-4. Epub 2008 May 15. PubMed PMID: 20587257; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3522210.
30)

Tsukamoto Y, Oishi M, Shinbo J, Fujii Y. Transarterial embolisation for refractory bilateral chronic subdural hematomas in a case with dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2011 May;153(5):1145-7. doi: 10.1007/s00701-010-0891-3. Epub 2010 Dec 2. PubMed PMID: 21125409.
31)

Mino M, Nishimura S, Hori E, Kohama M, Yonezawa S, Midorikawa H, Kaimori M, Tanaka T, Nishijima M. Efficacy of middle meningeal artery embolization in the treatment of refractory chronic subdural hematoma. Surg Neurol Int. 2010 Dec 13;1:78. doi: 10.4103/2152-7806.73801. PubMed PMID: 21206540; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3011107.
32)

Hashimoto T, Ohashi T, Watanabe D, Koyama S, Namatame H, Izawa H, Haraoka R, Okada H, Ichimasu N, Akimoto J, Haraoka J. Usefulness of embolization of the middle meningeal artery for refractory chronic subdural hematomas. Surg Neurol Int. 2013 Aug 19;4:104. doi: 10.4103/2152-7806.116679. eCollection 2013. PubMed PMID: 24032079; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3766342.
33)

Kim E. Embolization Therapy for Refractory Hemorrhage in Patients with Chronic Subdural Hematomas. World Neurosurg. 2017 May;101:520-527. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.02.070. Epub 2017 Feb 27. PubMed PMID: 28249828.
34)

Chihara H, Imamura H, Ogura T, Adachi H, Imai Y, Sakai N. Recurrence of a Refractory Chronic Subdural Hematoma after Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization That Required Craniotomy. NMC Case Rep J. 2014 May 9;1(1):1-5. doi: 10.2176/nmccrj.2013-0343. eCollection 2014 Oct. PubMed PMID: 28663942; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5364934.

Subdural drain for chronic subdural hematoma

Subdural drain for chronic subdural hematoma

see also Subdural Evacuating Port System.

Little is known about the best type of drainage system and its relationship with recurrence. In a study, Takroni et al. compared the use of two drainage systems on the recurrence rate of CSDH. They retrospectively analyzed the charts of 180 CSDH patients treated with bedside twist drill craniostomy (TDC) and subdural drain insertion. Patients were divided into two groups: Group A (n=123) received our traditional drain (pediatric size nasogastric tube (NGT), while group B (n=49) had the external ventricular drain (EVD). Various demographic and radiological data were collected. Our main outcome was recurrence, defined as symptomatic re-accumulation of hematoma on the previously operated side within 3 months. Results 212 cases of subdural hematoma were treated in 172 patients. Majority of patients were male (78%) and had a history of previous head trauma (73%). 17 cases had recurrence, 11 in the NGT group drain and 6 in the EVD group. The use of antiplatelet or anticoagulation agents was associated with recurrence (P= 0.038 and 0.05, respectively). There was no difference between both groups in terms of recurrence [OR=1.42, 95% CI:0.49 to 4.08, P=0.573].

Chronic subdural hematoma is a common disease with a high rate of recurrence. Although using a drain postoperatively has shown to improve the incidence of recurrence, little remains known about the best type of drain to use. The analysis showed no difference in the recurrent rate between using the pediatric size NGT and the EVD catheter post TDC 1).

There is some evidence that postoperative drainage is effective in reducing the symptomatic recurrence of chronic subdural hematoma surgery. Further research is likely to have an important impact on confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimate. Due to the low quality of the evidence for the secondary outcomes, the effect of drainage on the occurrence of surgical complications, mortality and poor functional outcome is uncertain. This uncertainty can be clarified with data from high-quality studies which may be conducted in the future. There is no strong evidence of any increase in complications when drains are used 2).

Soleman et al. administered a survey to neurosurgeons worldwide with questions relating to the surgical treatment of chronic subdural hematoma, with an emphasis on their practices concerning the use of a drain.

The preferred surgical technique was burr-hole drainage (89%). Most surgeons prefer to place a drain (80%), whereas in 56% of the cases the reason for not placing a drain was brain expansion after evacuation. Subdural drains are placed by 50% and subperiosteal drains by 27% of the responders, whereas 23% place primarily a subdural drain if possible and otherwise a subperiosteal drain. Three quarters of the responders leave the drain for 48 hours and give prophylactic antibiotic treatment, mostly a single-shot dose intraoperatively (70%). Routine postoperative computed tomography is done by 59% mostly within 24-48 hours after surgery (94%). Adjunct treatment to surgery rarely is used (4%).

The publication of grade I evidence in favor of drain use influenced positively this practice worldwide. Some surgeons are still reluctant to insert a drain, especially when the subdural space is narrow after drainage of the hematoma. The insertion of a subperiosteal drain could be a good alternative solution. However, its outcome and efficacy must be evaluated in larger studies 3).

Tommiska et al., conducted a retrospective observational study including consecutive patients undergoing burr hole trephinations for chronic subdural hematomas (CSDHs). They compared outcomes between a six-month time period when the SD placement was arbitrary (July to December 2015) and a time period when subdural drain (SD) placement for 48 h was routine (July to December 2017). The primary outcome of interest was recurrences requiring reoperation within six months. Furthermore, patient outcome, infections and other complications were assessed.

A total of 161 patients were included, of which 71 (44%) were in the SD group and 90 (56%) in the non-drain group. There were no differences in age, comorbidities, history of trauma or use of antithrombotic medication between the groups (p>0.05). Recurrences within six months occurred in 18% of patients in the non-drain group compared to 6% in the SD group (p=0.028; OR 0.28; 95% CI 0.09-0.87). There were no differences in neurological outcome (p=0.72), mortality rate (p=0.55), infection rate (p=0.96) or other complications (p=0.20).

The change in practice from no drain to SD after burr-hole craniostomies for CSDHs effectively reduced the six-month recurrence rate without any effect on patient outcome, infections or other complications 4).

Complications

Subdural drain for chronic subdural hematoma complications.

References

1)

Takroni R, Zagzoog N, Patel N, Martyniuk A, Farrokhyar F, Singh S, Trivedi A, Alotaibi M, Algird A. Comparison of two drainage systems on chronic subdural hematoma (CSDH) recurrence. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg. 2021 Nov 16. doi: 10.1055/a-1698-6212. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 34784622.
2)

Peng D, Zhu Y. External drains versus no drains after burr-hole evacuation for the treatment of chronic subdural haematoma in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Aug 31;(8):CD011402. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011402.pub2. Review. PubMed PMID: 27578263.
3)

Soleman J, Kamenova M, Lutz K, Guzman R, Fandino J, Mariani L. Drain Insertion in Chronic Subdural Hematoma: An International Survey of Practice. World Neurosurg. 2017 Aug;104:528-536. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.04.134. Epub 2017 Apr 28. PubMed PMID: 28461277.
4)

Tommiska P, Lönnrot K, Raj R, Luostarinen T, Kivisaari R. Transition of a clinical practice to use of subdural drains after burr-hole evacuation of chronic subdural haematomas: The Helsinki experience. World Neurosurg. 2019 May 31. pii: S1878-8750(19)31507-4. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2019.05.230. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 31158547.

Chronic Cerebral Ischemia Treatment

Chronic Cerebral Ischemia Treatment

see also Acute Ischemic Stroke Treatment.

Carotid artery stenting

Revascularization for Chronic Cerebral Ischemia Treatment

Revascularization for Chronic Cerebral Ischemia Treatment.

Stem Cell Treatment for Ischemic Stroke Recovery

The role of cellular transplantation to promote functional recovery after stroke has been evaluated over the last two decades. Preclinical studies first established the potential for cultured neuronal cells derived from a teratocarcinoma cell line to be tested for safety and efficacy in the treatment of human stroke. In animal models of stroke that caused reproducible learning and motor deficits, injection of neuronal cells resulted in a return of learning behavior, retention time, and motor function. Clinical trials followed. Additional work with cells derived from a bone marrow neuroprogenitor line, fetal cortical stem cells, and other cell sources showed promise in preclinical studies and then these cells were tested in clinical studies 1).

Normobaric oxygen

A prospective randomized trial (NCT03745092) enrolled 50 cases of CCI patients, which were divided into NBO (8 L/min of oxygen supplement) group and control group (room air) randomly, and also enrolled 21 healthy volunteers. Two times of 30-min EEG recordings with the interval of 45min of NBO or room air were analyzed quantitatively.

The CCI-mediated EEG presented with two patterns of electrical activities: high-power oscillations (high-power EEG, n = 26) and paroxysmal slow activities under the normal-power background (normal-power EEG, n = 24). The fronto-central absolute power (AP) of the beta, alpha, theta, and delta in the high-power EEG was higher than that in healthy EEG (p < 0.05). The fronto-central theta/alpha, delta/alpha and (delta + theta)/(alpha + beta) ratios in the normal-power EEG were higher than those in healthy EEG (p < 0.05). The high-power EEG in NBO group had higher fronto-central AP reduction rates than those in control group (p < 0.05). NBO remarkably reduced the fronto-central theta/alpha, delta/alpha, and (delta + theta)/(alpha + beta) ratios in the normal-power EEG (p < 0.05).

NBO rapidly ameliorates CCI-mediated EEG anomalies, including attenuation of the abnormal high-power oscillations and the paroxysmal slow activities associated with CCI 2).

1)

Kondziolka D. Stem Cell Treatment for Ischemic Stroke Recovery. Semin Neurol. 2021 Jan 27. doi: 10.1055/s-0040-1722640. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 33506475.
2)

Ding JY, Liu Y, Rajah GB, Chen ZY, Zhang SY, Ding YC, Ji XM, Meng R. Normobaric oxygen may correct chronic cerebral ischemia-mediated EEG anomalies. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2021 Jul 9. doi: 10.1111/cns.13703. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 34242498.

Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma

Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma

middlemeningealartery.jpg

Perioperative prophylactic Middle meningeal artery embolization in the setting of surgical evacuation, via either craniotomy or subdural evacuating port system (SEPS), may help to lower the recurrence rate of cSDH 1).

It can be used safely and effectively as an alternative or adjunctive minimally invasive chronic subdural hematoma treatment in elderly and advanced elderly patients 2).

It has been proposed as a curative treatment for chronic subdural hematoma (cSDH), but evidence for the indication and timing is not definitive.

Trials

Given the encouraging results with a 91% long-term success rate in the series of Link et al., a large scale clinical trial is warranted 3).

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03307395

Systematic Reviews

Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma systematic reviews.

Case series

Middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma case series

Case reports

A case of a 74-year-old male on aspirin with a history of recurrent symptomatic chronic right-sided subdural hematoma treated successfully with a SEPS and right middle meningeal artery embolization with poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) microparticles. The patient initially presented to the emergency department with headaches, difficulty walking, and left sided hemiparesis. CT Head showed a large chronic right-sided subdural hematoma measuring 2.7 cm thick with 1 cm of leftward shift. Patient underwent placement of a right-sided SEPS and the subdural hematoma decreased in size to 1.0 cm with 2 mm of leftward shift. The patient had resolution of headaches and neurological symptoms and was discharged home. Three months later, the patient returned to the emergency department with headache and left hand numbness. CT Head showed an acute on chronic right-sided subdural hematoma measuring 1.4 cm with 3 mm of leftward shift. Patient underwent right-sided SEPS placement. Repeat CT Head showed reduction in the subdural hematoma to 1.2 cm. The SEPS was removed and the patient had resolution of neurological symptoms. The patient then had a diagnostic cerebral angiogram with PVA microparticle embolization of the right middle meningeal artery. A SEPS was placed at the time of the angiogram to further reduce the size of the subdural hematoma.

Repeat CT Head after SEPS and middle meningeal artery embolization showed decrease in size of the subdural hematoma. Follow-up CT Head showed stability of the subdural hematoma and patient had no further neurological symptoms. Patient was discharged home.

Middle meningeal artery embolization is a useful endovascular technique for reducing the arterial supply to the membranes in chronic subdural hematomas. Middle meningeal artery embolization can reduce the recurrence rate of subdural hematomas 4).

In 1994 a rare case of chronic subdural hematoma associated with a middle meningeal arteriovenous fistula was treated by a combination of embolization and burr hole drainage. This clinical situation might be missed in this era of computed tomography, when cerebral angiography is seldom indicated for the diagnosis of neuro-traumatic diseases. We should bear in mind the possibility of this clinical situation of a chronic subdural hematoma associated with a linear skull fracture crossing the middle meningeal groove in order to avoid possible hemorrhagic complications during surgery for chronic subdural hematoma 5)

References

1)

Schwarz J, Carnevale JA, Goldberg JL, Ramos AD, Link TW, Knopman J. Perioperative prophylactic middle meningeal artery embolization for chronic subdural hematoma: a series of 44 cases. J Neurosurg. 2021 May 21:1-9. doi: 10.3171/2020.10.JNS202856. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 34020417.
2)

Joyce E, Bounajem MT, Scoville J, Thomas AJ, Ogilvy CS, Riina HA, Tanweer O, Levy EI, Spiotta AM, Gross BA, Jankowitz BT, Cawley CM, Khalessi AA, Pandey AS, Ringer AJ, Hanel R, Ortiz RA, Langer D, Levitt MR, Binning M, Taussky P, Kan P, Grandhi R. Middle meningeal artery embolization treatment of nonacute subdural hematomas in the elderly: a multiinstitutional experience of 151 cases. Neurosurg Focus. 2020 Oct;49(4):E5. doi: 10.3171/2020.7.FOCUS20518. PMID: 33002874.
3)

Link TW, Boddu S, Paine SM, Kamel H, Knopman J. Middle Meningeal Artery Embolization for Chronic Subdural Hematoma: A Series of 60 Cases. Neurosurgery. 2019 Dec 1;85(6):801-807. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyy521. PMID: 30418606.
4)

https://jnis.bmj.com/content/10/Suppl_2/A98.1
5)

Komiyama M, Yasui T, Tamura K, Nagata Y, Fu Y, Yagura H. Chronic subdural hematoma associated with middle meningeal arteriovenous fistula treated by a combination of embolization and burr hole drainage. Surg Neurol. 1994 Oct;42(4):316-9. doi: 10.1016/0090-3019(94)90400-6. PMID: 7974127.